Sunday, February 28, 2010

Am I a yam or a sweet potato

Yam (vegetable)

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For the vegetable sometimes called yam in the United States, see sweet potato.
Yam
Yams at Brixton market
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
Order: Dioscoreales
Family: Dioscoreaceae
Genus: Dioscorea
Yam output in 2005
Top Producers - 2005
(million metric ton)
Nigeria 26.6
Ghana 3.9
Australia 3.2
Côte d'Ivoire 3.0
Benin 2.3
Togo 0.6
Colombia 0.3
World Total 39.9
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation
(FAO)[1]

Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae). These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. There are many cultivars of yam.

The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) has traditionally been referred to as a yam in parts of the United States and Canada, but it is not part of the Dioscoreaceae family.

Although it is unclear which came first, the word yam is related to Portuguese inhame or Spanish ñame, which both ultimately derive from the Wolof word nyam, meaning "to sample" or "taste"; in other African languages it can also mean "to eat", e.g. yamyam and doya in Hausa.[citation needed]

There are over 100 tribes and dialect in Nigeria, and each has different language names for Yam, "Isu" is the Yoruba translation or "Iyan" when it has been prepared to be consumed as a main course for dinner. The yam is a versatile vegetable which has various derivative products after process, it can be barbecued; roasted; fried; grilled; boiled; smoked and when grated it is processed into a desert recipe.

Yam tubers can grow up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in length[1] and weigh up to 70 kg (154 lb).

The vegetable has a rough skin which is difficult to peel, but which softens after heating. The skins vary in color from dark brown to light pink. The majority of the vegetable is composed of a much softer substance known as the "meat". This substance ranges in color from white or yellow to purple or pink in ripe yams.

Yams are a primary agricultural commodity in West Africa and New Guinea. They were first cultivated in Africa and Asia about 8000 B.C.[citation needed] Due to their abundance and consequently, their importance to survival, the yam was highly regarded in Nigerian ceremonial culture and used as a vegetable offered during blessings.

Yams are still important for survival in these regions. The tubers can be stored up to six months without refrigeration, which makes them a valuable resource for the yearly period of food scarcity at the beginning of the wet season.

Yams are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Palpifer sordida.

Contents

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[edit] Preparation

Tongan farmer showing off his prize yams

[edit] Africa

Yams of African species must be cooked to be safely eaten, because various natural substances in raw yams can cause illness if consumed. (Excessive skin contact with uncooked yam fluids can cause the skin to itch. If this occurs, a quick cold bath will stop the itching.) Yam is consumed in various ways, but is usually boiled and eaten. This involves cutting yam into pieces, then peeling the skin, and boiling the starchy "meat". This is usually consumed with palm oil (traditional way), or with other sauces. The boiled yam can also be pounded with a traditional mortar and pestle to create a thick starchy paste known as Pounded Yam. This is also eaten with traditional stews and sauces. Another method of consumption is to sun dry the raw yam pieces. When dry, the pieces turn a dark brown color. This is then milled to create a powder known as "elubo" in Nigeria. The brown powder can be prepared with boiling water to create a thick brown starchy paste known as "amala". This is also consumed with the local stews and sauces. The most common cooking method in Western and Central Africa is cooked "boiled" yam.

[edit] The Philippines

In the Philippines, the purple ube variety of yam (Dioscorea alata, also known in India as ratalu or violet yam) is eaten as a sweetened dessert called halaya, and is also an ingredient in another Filipino dessert, halo-halo.

[edit] Vietnam

In Vietnam, the same purple yam is used for preparing a special type of soup canh khoai mỡ or fatty yam soup. This involves mashing the yam and cooking it until very well done.

[edit] Japan

An exception to the cooking rule is the Japanese mountain yam (Dioscorea opposita), known as nagaimo or yamaimo (山芋?) depending on the root shape.

Yams at Port-Vila market (Vanuatu)

It is eaten raw and grated, after only a relatively minimal preparation: the whole tubers are briefly soaked in a vinegar-water solution to neutralize irritant oxalate crystals found in their skin. The raw vegetable is starchy and bland, mucilaginous when grated, and may be eaten plain as a side dish, or added to noodles.

[edit] India

In India this vegetable is also called Garadu. In central part of India people cut small slices of the vegetable, deep fry them, sprinkle lots of spices on it and eat as snacks. In southern part of India, it is eaten with fish curry and is a local favorite.

[edit] The West

'Yam powder' is available in the West from grocers specializing in African products, and may be used in a similar manner to instant mashed potato powder, although preparation is a little more difficult because of the tendency to form lumps. The 'yam powder' is sprinkled onto a pan containing a small amount of boiling water, and stirred vigorously. The resulting mixture is served with a heated sauce, such as tomato and chili, poured onto it.

[edit] Cultural aspects

[edit] Nigeria and Ghana

A Yam Festival is usually held in the beginning of August at the end of the rainy season. A popular holiday in Ghana, the Yam Festival is so named because yam is the most common food in many African countries. Yams are the first crops to be harvested. People offer yams to gods and ancestors first, before distributing them to the villagers. This is their way of giving thanks to the spirits above them.

Young women preparing fufu in the Democratic Republic of Congo

[edit] New Yam Festival (Idoma in Benue state, Igbo)

The New Yam Festival consists of prayers and thanks for the years past. Yam is the main agricultural crop of the Idomas, Tivs and Igbos. It is the "staple" food of the Idoma and Tiv people. The New Yam Festival, known as Orureshi in Owukpa in Idoma west and Ima-Ji, Iri-Ji or Iwa Ji in Igbo land is a celebration depicting the prominence of yam in the social and cultural life. The festival is very promiment among all the major tribes in Benue state, mainly around August.

Men and women, young and old, look forward to this festival because it begins a new yam season. On the last night before the festival, yams from the old year are disposed of or preserved for the next planting season. The new yam festival must begin with tasty, fresh yams. All cooking pots, calabashes and wooden bowls are thoroughly washed, especially the wooden mortar in which yam is pounded.

Pounded yam with ogbono, egusior vegetable soups (the suops vary according to individual or group) is the main food in the celebration. So much of it is cooked that, no matter how heavily the family eats or how many friends and relatives they invite from the neighboring villages, there is always a large quantity of food left over at the end of the day.

The celebration is followed by various cultural dance with the dispaly of masquerades from different clans or groups. This usually last to very late night. During the occation is also a momment of reuniting old friends and family members.

[edit] Elsewhere

Historical records in West Africa and of African yams in Europe date back to the sixteenth century. Yams were taken to the Americas through precolonial Portuguese and Spanish on the borders of Brazil and Guyana, followed by a dispersion through the Caribbean.[2]

The coming of the yams (one of the numerous versions from Maré) is described in Pene Nengone (Loyalty Islands - New Caledonia)[3]

In many societies yams are so important that one can speak of a 'yam civilization'. Growing the tuber is associated with magic; the best ones must be given to the chief or king; there is a series of myths connected to a divine origin; a farmer may gain a lot of prestige by growing the largest or longest yam.

In Tonga, the ancient names of the months of the year, and the names of the days of the moon-month, were all geared towards the growing of yam. People of ancient times worshiped the yam. Olhuala is a type of local yam that is a staple food in the Maldives.

On the Japanese island of Rishiri, yams and yam products are regarded as a folk remedy for the treatment of impotence, possibly because of the vegetable's high vitamin E content, but likely because of its evocation of virile phallic imagery, according to the common folk medicine theory of sympathetic medicine.

[edit] Major cultivated species

[edit] Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis

Dioscorea rotunda, the "white yam", and Dioscorea cayenensis, the "yellow yam", are native to Africa. They are the most important cultivated yams. In the past they were considered two separate species but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. There are over 200 cultivated varieties between them. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips.[4]

They are large plants; the vines can be as long as 10 to 12 meters (35 to 40 feet). The tubers most often weigh about 2.5 to 5 kg (6 to 12 lbs) each but can weigh as much as 25 kg (60 lbs). After 7 to 12 months growth the tubers are harvested. In Africa most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of "pounded yam" (Kay 1987).

[edit] D. alata

A piece of cake made with Ube (water yam).

Dioscorea alata, called "water yam", "winged yam" and "purple yam", was first cultivated in Southeast Asia. Although not grown in the same quantities as the African yams, it has the largest distribution world-wide of any cultivated yam, being grown in Asia, the Pacific islands, Africa, and the West Indies (Mignouna 2003). In the United States it has become an invasive species in some Southern states.

In the Philippines it is known as ube (or ubi) and is used as an ingredient in many sweet desserts. In Vietnam, it is called khoai mỡ and is used mainly as an ingredient for soup. In India, it is known as ratalu or violet yam. In Hawaii it is known as uhi.

Uhi was brought to Hawaii by the early Polynesian settlers and became a major crop in the 1800s when the tubers were sold to visiting ships as an easily stored food supply for their voyages (White 2003).

Segment of a Dioscorea opposita tuber

[edit] D. opposita

Dioscorea opposita, "Chinese yam", is native to China. The Chinese yam plant is somewhat smaller than the African, with the vines about 3 meters (10 feet) long. It is tolerant to frost and can be grown in much cooler conditions than other yams. It is now grown in China, Korea, and Japan.

It was introduced to Europe in the 1800s when the potato crop there was falling victim to disease, and is still grown in France for the Asian food market.

The tubers are harvested after about 6 months of growth. Some are eaten right after harvesting and some are used as ingredients for other dishes, including noodles, and for traditional medicines (Kay 1987).

Air potato

[edit] D. bulbifera

Dioscorea bulbifera, the "air potato", is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in each place. It is a large vine, 6 meters (20 ft) or more in length. It produces tubers; however the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name "air potato"), weighing from 0.5 to 2 kg (1 to 5 lbs).

Some varieties can be eaten raw while some require soaking or boiling for detoxification before eating. It is not grown much commercially since the flavor of other yams is preferred by most people. However it is popular in home vegetable gardens because it produces a crop after only four months of growth and continues producing for the life of the vine, as long as two years. Also the bulbils are easy to harvest and cook (Kay 1987).

In 1905 the air potato was introduced to Florida and has since become an invasive species in much of the state. Its rapid growth crowds out native vegetation and is very difficult to remove since it can grow back from the tubers, and new vines can grow from the bulbils even after being cut down or burned (Schultz 1993).

[edit] D. esculenta

Dioscorea esculenta, the "lesser yam", was one of the first yam species cultivated. It is native to Southeast Asia and is the third most commonly cultivated species there, although it is cultivated very little in other parts of the world. Its vines seldom reach more than 3 meters (10 feet) in length and the tubers are fairly small in most varieties.

The tubers are eaten baked, boiled, or fried much like potatoes. Because of the small size of the tubers, mechanical cultivation is possible; which, along with its easy preparation and good flavor, could help the lesser yam to become more popular in the future (Kay 1987).

[edit] D. trifida

Dioscorea trifida, the "cush-cush yam", is native to the Guyana region of South America and is the most important cultivated New World yam. Since they originated in tropical rain forest conditions their growth cycle is less related to seasonal changes than other yams. Because of their relative ease of cultivation and their good flavor they are considered to have a great potential for increased production (Kay 1987).

Wild bitter yam vines

[edit] D. dumetorum

Dioscorea dumetorum, the "bitter yam", is popular as a vegetable in parts of West Africa; one reason being that their cultivation requires less labor than other yams.

The wild forms are very toxic and are sometimes used to poison animals when mixed with bait. It is said that they have also been used for criminal purposes (Kay 1987).

[edit] Nutritional value

Yams are high in vitamin C, dietary fiber, vitamin B6, potassium, and manganese; while being low in saturated fat and sodium. Vitamin C, dietary fiber and vitamin B6 may all promote good health.[5] Furthermore, a product that is high in potassium and low in sodium is likely to produce a good potassium-sodium balance in the human body, and so protect against osteoporosis and heart disease.[6]

Yam products generally have a lower glycemic index than potato products,[7] which means that they will provide a more sustained form of energy, and give better protection against obesity and diabetes.[8]

[edit] Other uses of the term yam

In the United States, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), especially those with orange flesh, are often referred to as "yams." In the United States, firm varieties of sweet potatoes were produced before soft varieties. When soft varieties were first grown commercially, there was a need to differentiate between the two. African slaves had already been calling the soft sweet potatoes "yams" because they resembled the yams in Africa. Thus, soft sweet potatoes were referred to as yams to distinguish them from the firm varieties.[9] Sweet potatoes labeled as "yams" are widely available in markets that serve Asian or Caribbean communities.

Today the U.S. Department of Agriculture requires[10] labels with the term "yam" to be accompanied by the term "sweet potato."

In New Zealand "yam" sometimes refers to the oca (Oxalis tuberosa). "Kumara" refers to the sweet potato.

The corm of the konjac is often colloquially referred to as a yam, although it bears no marked relation to tubers of the genus Dioscorea.

In Malaysia and Singapore, "yam" is also known as taro.

[edit] See also

  • Konjac - a Japanese vegetable with similar uses
  • Diosgenin - A precursor to many steroids which is found in many species of Yam, most notably the Dioscorea Wild yam.

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Huxley, 1992
  2. ^ FAO.org
  3. ^ YouTube.com
  4. ^ R. Dumont, P. Vernier (February 24-28, 1997). "Domestication of Yams (D. cayenensis-D. rotundata) within the Bariba Ethnic Group in Benin". Outlook on Agriculture. http://wwww.cirad.fr/tmp/igname/articles/yambariba.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
  5. ^ Holford, ch 11, The Vitamin Scandal ; Walsh, p56
  6. ^ Walsh, p54; Walsh, pp165-6
  7. ^ Brand-Miller et al., ch 5, The Top 100 Low-GI Foods
  8. ^ Brand-Miller et al., Introduction
  9. ^ LOC.gov, What is the difference between sweet potatoes and yams?
  10. ^ USDA.gov

[edit] Bibliography

  • Brand-Miller, J., Burani, J., Foster-Powell, K. (2003). The New Glucose Revolution - Pocket Guide to The Top 100 Low GI Foods. ISBN 1-56924-500-2.
  • IITA has CGIAR global mandate for YAM. IITA's global research for development mandate.
  • Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (1994). A Breakthrough in Yam Breeding.
  • Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (2006). Yam.
  • Holford, P. (1998). The Optimum Nutrition Bible. ISBN 0-7499-1855-1.
  • Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan.
  • Kay, D.E. (1987). Root Crops. Tropical Development and Research Institute : London
  • Mignouna, H.D., Abang, M.M., & Asiedu, R. (2003). Harnessing modern biotechnology for tropical tuber crop improvement: Yam (Dioscorea spp.) molecular breeding. Available online.
  • Schultz, G.E. (1993). Element Stewardship Abstract for Dioscorea bulbifera, Air potato. Nature Conservancy
  • Sumiyoshi, S., ed. (1996). Nigerian culture and customs: A walk through time. Koerner.
  • Walsh, S. (2003). Plant Based Nutrition and Health. ISBN 0-907337-26-0.
  • White, L.D. (2003). Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawai'i: Uhi

[edit] External links

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Special:Search


Due to all of the questions lately on where to get Kefir grains:



Before you read further any Kefir you have can be turned into grains by daily washing purified water and adding a small amount of organic honey.
misterjones@kc.rr.com


Tibicos, also known as tibi, water kefir grains, sugar kefir grains, Japanese water crystals and California Bees, are a culture of bacteria and yeast held in a polysaccharide matrix created by the bacteria. As with kefir grains, the microbes present in tibicos act in symbiosis to maintain a stable culture. Tibicos can do this in many different sugary liquids, feeding off the sugar to produce lactic acid, alcohol (ethanol), and carbon dioxide gas which carbonates the drink.

Tibicos are found around the world, with no two cultures being exactly the same. Typical tibicos have a mix of Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus and Leuconostoc bacteria with yeasts from Saccharomyces, Candida, Kloeckera and possibly others. Lactobacillus brevis has been identified as the species responsible for the production of the polysaccharide (dextran) that forms the grains.

People who do not wish to consume dairy or have a vegan type diet may find that water kefir provides the living pro-biotics without the need for dairy or tea cultured products, like kombucha. Since the finished product, if bottled, will produce a carbonated beverage, it provides an alternative to sweet soda drinks for children and adults.

Contents

[hide]

[edit] Preparation

Tibicos colony under microscope (200×)

Basic preparation method is to add tibicos to a sugary liquid and allow to ferment 24 to 48 hours. A typical recipe might be:

  • 1/4 to 1/2 cup of tibicos
  • 1 dried fig, halved
  • 1/2 lemon
  • 60 grams or 4 tablespoons of white sugar
  • 1 litre (4 cups) of water
  • 2 litre jar with lid

Method: dissolve the sugar in the water, add the juice of the lemon, the lemon half, and the fig. After mixing, drop in the tibicos and cover the jar. If the lid is on tightly, you get a carbonated drink; if loose, a still drink. Set the jar aside to ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. When finished, strain out the tibicos to add to the next batch.

It is important to use ingredients that will not inhibit the fermentation. This means:

  1. if using tap water, filter or boil to remove chlorine (note that boiling does not remove chloramine)
  2. fresh fruit should be washed to remove pesticide residues, and ideally be organic fruit[citation needed]
  3. dried fruit should be preservative free, so as not to unbalance the bacteria counts in the tibicos or water kefir.

It is recommended to follow the above recipe to maintain a healthy culture. The fruits used may be changed and mixed to create difference taste, however, it is very important to use the lemon or other acidic fruit like grapefruit. This is for the safety factor of those drinking the finished beverage as the pH of 3.0 to 4.6 is desired.

Additional precaution has to be taken in order to keep culture healthy. All the handling needs to be done without usage of silver, since it can cause considerable damage to the grains[citation needed]. Stainless steel is preferable. Culturing grains in a glass jar with tight fitting lid and using clean metal or plastic items when handling the grains is recommended. Once a batch is ready it may be consumed fresh throughout the day or stored in sealed bottles in the refrigerator for a few days.[citation needed]

[edit] References

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibicos"
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Tuesday, February 23, 2010

This is a very important article to read.

Vitamin B12: Vital Nutrient for Good Health Print E-mail
Written by Sally Fallon and Mary G. Enig, PhD
2005-Jul-27


One of the most important nutrients we get from animal foods is vitamin B12. The vitamin is also the largest known biomolecule and the only nutrient with a stable carbon-metal bond. One molecule of cobalt lies at the center of each B12 molecule, which has the approximate (and awesome!) chemical formula of C61-64H84-90N14O13-14PCo. Isolated B12 is a crystalline compound with a bright red color, due to the presence of cobalt. One practitioner has referred to B12 as "those ruddy drops that cheer sad hearts and strengthen faint hearts."1

Vitamin B12 works with folic acid in many body processes including synthesis of DNA, red blood cells and the insulation sheath (the myelin sheath) that surrounds nerve cells and facilitates the conduction of signals in the nervous system. Severe depletion manifests as pernicious anemia, which was invariably fatal until the discovery of B12 in liver. But long before anemia sets in, other conditions may manifest, most often neurological problems (numbness, pins and needles sensations, a burning feeling in the feet, shaking, muscle fatigue, sleep disorders, memory loss, irrational anger, impaired mental function and Alzheimer’s) or psychological conditions (dementia, depression, psychosis and obsessive-compulsive behavior). President Kennedy has been quoted as having said he would never have become president without injections of B12.2

Absorption

Absorption of vitamin B12 is a complex process, subject to problems at several points.

B12 from animal food enters the stomach as part of animal proteins and must first be liberated by pepsin and hydrochloric acid. Free B12 then attaches to R-protein, which is released from the salivary cells and parietal cells (the same cells that release hydrochloric acid). To be absorbed efficiently, B12 must attach to a protein called intrinsic factor (IF) which is also secreted in the stomach. This cannot happen until the R-protein complexes are broken down by pancreatic enzymes in the small intestine. B12 then binds with the intrinsic factor and proceeds through the gut to the lower portion of the small intestine, where the intrinsic factor-B12 complex attaches to cell receptors, a process that involves calcium.

Thus, deficiencies in pepsin, hydrochloric acid, R-protein, pancreatic enzymes, intrinsic factor, calcium and cell receptors can all lead to B12 deficiency through blocked absorption. Once in the bloodstream, transport proteins bind to B12 and deliver it to the cells. Within the cells, enzymes liberate B12 from the protein complex and convert it to its two coenzyme forms, methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. Deficiency in the required enzymes can block this conversion.

Because the absorption process is so complicated, and therefore subject to various blocks, many people--particularly the elderly--may develop deficiencies even though they are taking in plentiful B12 in their food. Fortunately, the body absorbs about 1-5 percent of free B12 by a process of passive diffusion. Thus supplementation with large doses of crystalline B12 or with foods extremely rich in B12 can successfully treat deficiencies caused by compromised protein digestion or lack of R-protein, intrinsic factor or pancreatic enzymes. Supplementation with the coenzyme forms methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin (the forms found in the cells) can overcome B12 deficiency in the cells caused by lack of, or malfunction of, conversion enzymes.

Vegetarians

B12 is found almost exclusively in animal foods such as liver, kidney, meat, fish, shellfish, milk products and eggs but the original source of B12 in nature is bacteria, the only creatures able to manufacture this vitamin. In humans and animals, these bacteria produce B12 in the colon; however, little if any is absorbed across the colon wall so we must get our B12 from animal foods. Bivalves such as clams, mussels and oysters contain high levels of B12 because they siphon large quantities of vitamin B12-synthesizing microorganisms from the sea.3 Production of B12 supplements involves fermentation procedures similar to those used for penicillin and other antibiotics.
Interestingly, while eggs contain B12, they also contain substances that block absorption,4 a fact that leaves only milk as a good source of B12 for vegetarians. Some studies indicate that B12 is better absorbed from milk than from meat.5 However, one source indicates that B12 in milk is destroyed by boiling.6 Analysis of B12 in pasteurized milk reveals only a 10 percent loss; however pasteurization deforms the milk proteins that aid in B12 absorption.7

Interestingly, some sources claim that fermentation of yoghurt from milk lowers B12 levels,8 although food tables indicate similar levels in commercial milk and yoghurt.

The vitamin B12 molecule is resistant to temperatures in excess of the boiling point, unless exposed to an alkaline medium. The molecule breaks down at 250o C. Thus B12 is destroyed on the surface of grilled meat, but not in the interior. Eight percent of B12 in liver is lost by boiling for five minutes.9 Thus gentle braising or cooking steaks to rare or medium-rare best preserves B12 in meat.

Until recently, vegetarian and vegan literature claimed that certain plant foods could provide B12--seaweeds, fermented soybeans, spirulina, even unwashed vegetables that have been fertilized with manure. Proponents of vegetarianism pointed to inhabitants of India, who did not seem to exhibit signs of B12 deficiency in spite of very low levels of animal foods in the diet. Yet as early as 1974, an American study found that 92 percent of vegans, 64 percent of lactovegetarians, 47 percent of lacto-ovovegetarians and 20 percent of semi-vegetarians have blood levels below normal, that is, below the low range that marks the onset of pernicious anemia.10

Today, most vegetarian literature does warn about the very real possibility of depletion and recommends routine supplementation with B12. We now know that a source of B12 in the tropical, mostly vegetarian diet in India was insect excrement and parts in stored grains and legumes.11 These would have been an unavoidable feature of traditional diets in hot climates until the advent of modern sterilization and storage techniques. Plant foods said to be sources of B12 actually contain B12 analogs (called cobamides)--substances that block the uptake of true B12 and increase the body’s need for the nutrient.12 A surprising source of cobamides is bacterial overgrowth in the small intestines, which can produce B12 analogs.13 The use of antibiotics, or a diet high in refined carbohydrates, can encourage the proliferation of bacterial overgrowth and lead to B12 deficiencies.

Yet another area for concern is multivitamin products! The late Victor Herbert, a noted B12 researcher, maintains that many multivitamin products contain spurious and even dangerous analogs of B12 possibly formed when crystalline B12 interacts with other nutrients in multivitamin products, such as vitamin C, iron and copper.14

High levels of folic acid can accelerate neuropsychiatric complications in persons with B12 deficiency.15 Since folic acid intakes of vegetarians tend to be high (from green vegetables and from grain products that have been fortified with folic acid), those following a vegetarian lifestyle may be at increased risk of neurological and psychological problems.

The body stores considerable B12 in the liver. Thus a delay of 5-10 years may separate the beginning of a vegetarian diet (or absorption problems) and the onset of deficiency symptoms. Interestingly, the body can recycle over 75 percent of the B12 it uses.16 Used B12 is excreted in bile and then reabsorbed in the small intestine by the same complex process described earlier. Some people have a more efficient recycling system than others and hence can go longer on a vegetarian diet without signs of deficiency. However, more B12 is excreted in the presence of high levels of fiber, a common feature of vegetarian diets.17

Vegan and vegetarian diets present a real danger for growing children because their stores are very low, especially if their mothers avoided animal foods during pregnancy and lactation. The scientific literature contains numerous case studies describing severe anemia, dramatic growth retardation, irritability and delays in the acquisition of motor skills in B12-deficient children from vegetarian families.

In a recent study, researchers assayed cognitive development in 72 young people raised on diets free of all animal products until at least the age of six and then on a diet containing milk and eggs. When compared with children who had eaten normal mixed diets (including meat) all their lives, they scored substantially lower on tests measuring spatial ability, short-term memory and "fluid intelligence," that is, the capacity to solve complex problems, abstract thinking ability and the ability to learn.18

Measuring B12 Deficieny

American medical opinion defines blood levels lower than 200 pg/mL as an indication of deficiency. This number is based on the level associated with the most severe manifestation of deficiency, pernicious anemia. In contrast, the lower limit in Japan and some European countries is 500-550 pg/mL, the levels associated with psychological and behavioral manifestations such as dementia and memory loss. Physicians in these countries consider blood levels of 500-1300 to be the normal range.19

According to Dr. John Dommisse, an expert in B12 deficiency, the acceptance of high levels as normal in Japan, and the willingness to readily treat psychiatric symptoms with B12 explains the low rates of Alzheimer’s dementia in that country--as well as the reason for the very high rates of Alzheimer’s in the US.20

Even with the very low cutoff currently considered the risk point, large numbers of Americans are deficient. In the ongoing Framingham Offspring Study, involving 3000 men and women in the town of Framingham, Massachusetts, researchers found that 39 percent had B12 levels in the so-called "low normal" range, that is below 258.21 Had the researchers chosen the optimal range of 1100-1300 as a measure of B12 status, very few would have qualified as B12 replete.

One of the most surprising findings of this study was the fact that the youngest group (26 to 49 years old) had about the same B12 status as the oldest group (65 and up), an indication that deficiencies are becoming more common.

Pernicious Anemia

Pernicious (that is, "deadly") anemia occurs when a person lacks the intrinsic factor and cannot absorb B12. The most common underlying cause of pernicious anemia is an autoimmune reaction that attacks and destroys the stomach cells that produce intrinsic factor. The disease is characterized by immature, abnormally large red blood cells (macrocytes), which are very inefficient at carrying oxygen, and by white blood cells with abnormal nuclei.

Early symptoms of pernicious anemia include paleness, weakness and fatigue; severe anemia causes shortness of breath, dizziness and a rapid heart rate.

Those suffering from pernicious anemia require very high levels of B12 to overcome the lack of intrinsic factor. The traditional treatment was one pound per day of calf’s liver, providing almost 200 micrograms B12. Today doctors prescribe injections or oral supplements of even higher doses.

Symptoms of Aging

B12 deficiency mimics many of the features of old age--ataxia (shaky movements and unsteady gait) muscle weakness, spasticity, incontinence, slowed reactions, memory loss, disorientation, depression and confusion can all occur when B12 levels are low.

Whether or not Alzheimer’s disease constitutes a condition of B12 deficiency is the subject of considerable debate among physicians. A recent and fascinating study of a family in Wales provides convincing evidence that low levels of B12 and Alzheimer’s are linked.22

Researchers evaluated members of a family with a genetic predisposition towards Alzheimer’s disease. They found that four out of six (67 percent) family members with confirmed Alzheimer’s disease had abnormally low blood levels of vitamin B12, compared to one out of 12 (8 percent) who were at equal genetic risk for developing Alzheimer’s but did not. The researchers speculated that a vitamin B12 deficiency could result in impaired methylation reactions in the central nervous system, a characteristic feature of Alzheimer’s, as well as the possibility that the genetic predisposition to Alzheimer’s may actually be related to a genetic impairment in the ability to absorb B12.

Investigators have found vitamin B12 deficiency in 3-42 percent of persons aged 65 and older. In a recent study of geriatric patients, 43 percent had levels below 295 pmol/L.23 Should a higher point be used as bench mark, it is likely that almost all seniors would be diagnosed as deficient.

Current medical practice has fixated on cholesterol as the marker for good health, using expensive lifelong drugs and soul-numbing diets to bring cholesterol levels as low as possible--a policy that has resulted in untold misery for millions and a huge financial burden on the medical system. How much more felicitous and cost effective to test everyone who reaches age 50 for B12 levels instead. For a fraction of the cost, old age could be transformed into a period of peace and contentment, instead of one of heartbreaking suffering for the elderly and their families.

Research shows tremendous potential for B12 to reverse mental decline in elderly patients. In one study, 61 percent of patients with mental impairment had complete recovery with supplementation; investigators speculate that those that did not recover had suffered from deficiency so long that damage to the nervous system had become irreversible.24 Supplementation results in little improvement for those who have had full blown Alzheimer’s symptoms for greater than six months.25 Thus, routine early testing for B12 has the potential to prevent mental decline in the vast proportion of the elderly. By the time Alzheimer’s is conclusively diagnosed, it may be too late for supplementation to be effective.

Heart Disease

It was Dr. Kilmer McCully who elucidated high blood homocysteine levels as a marker for heart disease. Homocysteine is formed in the body from the amino acid methionine in a process that can be blocked by folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12. High homocysteine levels can result in endothelial dysfunction (a narrowing of the arteries) which in turn is believed to be a precursor of atherosclerosis. Researchers in Taiwan now report that homocysteine-induced endothelial narrowing can be avoided or at least reduced by supplementing with folic acid and vitamins B6 and B12.26 Ironically, the American Heart Association and government agencies have demonized B12-rich foods like liver and raw milk (which is also an excellent source of B6).

Cancer

Since B12 helps repair DNA that is damaged by radiation or oxidation, it plays a role in protection against cancer. Low levels of B12 are associated with cancer of the cervix27 and the breast28 in human studies.

But research on B12 and cancer is contradictory. In one study, high levels of vitamin B12 were associated with an up to 3-fold increase in risk of developing prostate cancer.29

One explanation for these disparities lies in the fact that cancer cells develop receptors that allow them to absorb huge amounts of B12. In fact, researchers are looking at cancer drugs that combine B12 with cellular toxins such as nitric oxide. Inside the tumor cell, the nitric oxide component of the targeted drug is released, triggering cellular events leading to up-regulation of genes causing apoptosis--or programmed cell death.30

Yet, a recent study found that injections of large doses of methylcobalamin were non-toxic and suppressed tumor growth in mice fed a diet deficient in B12.31

Furthermore, holistic physicians have reported good results giving B12 to cancer patients. Dr. Max Gerson, who treated terminal cancer patients with extraordinary success, gave his patients liver injections, often combined with additional B12.32

Nervous Disorders

One condition that would seem obviously correlated with B12 deficiency is multiple sclerosis (MS), a disease characterized by demyelination of the central nervous system. Yet many studies indicate that those with MS have normal blood levels of the vitamin. Japanese researchers have found that in MS patients, there is a decrease in the binding capacity of B12, thus inhibiting the transport of B12 into the cells, even in patients with normal levels in their blood.33 Even so, they were able to achieve some improvement with high-dose supplementation.

The benefit of B12 for depression may be due to B12’s ability to activate a substance called tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), a compound which in turn helps activate "feel good" neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine.34
Surprisingly, B12 has also proven successful in treating diabetic neuropathy, possibly because the condition of diabetes deranges B12 metabolism.35

Recurrent seizures may be a manifestation of B12 deficiency. One study found that individuals who suffered from seizures had low B12 levels.36

Other neurological problems associated with B12 deficiency include urinary incontinence37 and migraine headaches.38 In one case history, B12 worked better than steroids as a treatment for Bell’s palsy.39 Another case study reports that shaky leg syndrome responds well to B12 injections.40

Fertility

B12 plays a critical role in cellular replication so it is no surprise that deficiency can manifest as low sperm count. High doses are key to successful treatment. In one study, 27 percent of men with sperm counts less than 20 million given 1000 mcg per day of vitamin B12 were able to achieve a total count in excess of 100 million;41 in a study in which men were given 6000 mcg per day, 57 percent of men with low sperm counts demonstrated improvement.42

As pernicious anemia often leads to infertility, B12 supplements can allow a woman to conceive. Traditional societies considered foods rich in B12 as important for fertility. B12 plays a key role in the development of new tissue; thus women who are deficient may not ovulate, or a fertilized egg may not develop, resulting in miscarriage. Prolonged B12 deficiency results in infertility. In one study, a woman who had suffered seven miscarriages before discovering her B12 deficiency went on to have three children once the problem was corrected.43

Other Diseases

  • Osteoblast activity in the bones depends on B12 and bone metabolism is affected by deficiency.44 Low B12 is associated with osteoporosis45 and B12 supplements can help remineralize the bones.46
  • B12 deficiency occurs in 10-35 percent of all patients tested positive for HIV, attributed to various factors such as low intake, reduced absorption and depletion by drugs like AZT. B12 deficiency exacerbates neurological symptoms of AIDS. Most interesting is the fact that B12 inhibits the replication of the HIV virus. Thus B12 can serve as both a therapy against increased viral load and as nutritional support for the common symptoms of AIDS.47
  • B12 has been shown to be an effective treatment for asthma, especially for those whose asthma stems from sulfite sensitivity.48
  • Researchers in Germany have reported using B12 as part of the successful treatment of a variety of skin conditions, such as hives, seborrhea, dermatitis, eczema, shingles and lupus.49 One journal article describes a successful treatment for psoriasis.50 Huge doses were needed--30 injections of 1000 micrograms each. B12 has been used to treat both hypopigmentation (vitiligo) and hyperpigmentation.51
  • The carbohydrate disruption of diabetes may indicate B12 deficiency, and B12 has been used as a useful adjunct for the diabetic.52
  • The Russians have pioneered the treatment of glaucoma with B12, observing improvement in half of a group of 46 patients receiving 1/10 milligram dose of B12 daily;53 and a Japanese physician found that B12 injections improved various vision problems.54
  • Deafness is associated with B12 deficiency; supplements have been useful in treating tinnitus and noise-related hearing loss.55
  • B12 deficiency in pregnant women has been implicated as a factor in neural tube defects such as spina bifida in offspring.56 This raises real concerns about the contraceptive pill, which depletes B12.57 Women who have been taking the contraceptive pill should have their levels tested and supplement as necessary before becoming pregnant.
  • B12 may be necessary for antibody response;58 low levels are associated with impaired immunity and increased infections.59
  • Mycotoxins from molds interfere with B12 function, which explains why a common reaction to molds is neurological problems.60 Pesticides and chemicals also deplete vitamin B12 High doses of B12 can protect against these xenotoxins.61
  • B12 injections have been beneficial in treating viral hepatitis.62
  • Finally, treatment with B12 can help with sleep disorders as the nutrient is involved in the production of melatonin.63

An Exception to Our Rule

In these pages, we have consistently advised obtaining vitamins from food (including superfoods) rather than with vitamin supplements. One good reason to avoid supplements derives from research indicating that they can interfere with B12 uptake, exacerbate the symptoms of B12 deficiency or even cause the creation of B12 analogs that increase the body’s need for B12.

However, when it comes to B12 itself, supplementation with isolated B12 is often necessary and appropriate. The many factors in our modern lifestlye that block the complicated uptake pathways of this important nutrient--from nutrient deficiencies to exposure to toxins to factors in processed foods that cause reduced stomach acid, autoimmune disease and enzyme disruption--make it difficult to obtain sufficient quantities from our normal diet; and since vitamin B12 in supplements is produced in exactly the same way as B12 in nature, that is, by bacterial fermentation, the danger of high doses in most cases is negligible.

B12 supplements have the potential of making life better for a large portion of the population, and not just the elderly. Regular testing and treatment with supplements as needed is an important step in the transition from the modern diet back to a nutrient-dense traditional one, when, after a generation or two, supplements of any kind will no longer be needed.

The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Lee Clifford, MS, CCN, for providing her extensive files on vitamin B12.

Sidebar Articles

Signs of B12 Deficiency

Poor growth/failure to thrive in infants
Inflamed tongue
Premature grey hair
Disturbed carbohydrate metabolism
Fatigue
Weakness
Weight loss
Constipation
Infertility
Vision problems
Loss of hearing and tinnitus
Numbness and tingling in the hands and feet
Alcoholism
Impotence
Incontinence
Hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation (dark and light patches in the skin)
Neuralgia, neuritis and bursitis
Anemia, including pernicious anemia
Spinal cord degeneration
Psoriasis and other skin problems
Brain degeneration
Insomnia
Irrational or chronic anger
Violent behavior
Lack of balance/abnormal gait
Combat fatigue
Any emotional disorder up to and including insanity

Testing for B12 Deficiency

The first step in determining B12 deficiency is a test of B12 levels in the blood. However, many doctors believe that blood levels are an unreliable indicator of deficiency and that tissue levels of B12 may be quite low even though blood levels are normal. They recommend also testing for elevated levels of homocysteine and methylmalonic acid (MMA), two precursors to the metabolic reactions controlled by B12. Since homocysteine levels can be elevated by a number of conditions (folic acid deficiency, B6 deficiencies, renal failure, hypothyroidism and certain genetic defects), doctors consider elevated MMA levels to be the more reliable indication of B12 deficiency.

Other tests include the Schilling test, in which a tiny dose of radioactive B12 is given by mouth and the amount absorbed measured. If vitamin B12 is absorbed only when given with intrinsic factor, the diagnosis of pernicious anemia is confirmed.

Because testing is so complicated, the levels considered normal in dispute, and disruption possible at numerous levels, many physicians have come to the conclusion that the only reliable way to assess the effects of subtle B12 deficiency on the blood, especially in older patients, is to observe changes (especially psychological changes) after treatment and determine empirically the best amount of supplementation for the individual patient. Since B12 is not toxic, except perhaps at extremely high levels, the empirical use of large doses to treat patients poses no danger.

Avoiding B12 Deficiency

Get a plentiful amount in your food. Liver or shellfish eaten at least once a week is the the best way to ensure that you are taking in adequate amounts.

Avoid overconsumption of foods that block vitamin B12 intake or increase the body’s need for the vitamin, such as soy foods and spirulina.

Avoid antacids and drugs that lower stomach acid levels: acid-suppressing drugs such as Tagamet, Zantac and Losec can lead to serious B12 deficiency (Koop H. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1992;6:399-406 [review]; Marcaurd SP and others. Ann Intern Med 1994;120:211-215).

Avoid diabetes drugs such as Glucophage which also interfere with B12 absorption (Archives Int Med 2002 Feb 25;162:484-85.

Consume plenty of calcium. Calcium is involved in the absorption of B12 from the lower small intestine. Best sources are raw dairy products and bone broths. (Bone broths also help heal intestinal inflammation that could cause absorption problems.) Dolomite powder can also be used as a calcium source.

Take coconut oil and consume lacto-fermented foods: these help fight against pathogens such as helicobacter pylori, which is associated with B12 deficiency. Eradication of the organism often clears up B12 deficiency. (Archives of Internal Medicine, May 8, 2000 160:1349-53)

Avoid foods fortified with folic acid. Taking folic acid without B12 can mask signs of B12 deficiency in red blood cells but will not protect against deficiencies in the nervous system. Folic acid and B12 work together and any supplementation program should include both of these nutrients (Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, biotin, and choline. National Academy Press. Washington, DC 1998).

Avoid taking excess vitamin C, especially for long periods. The ability of vitamin C to destroy B12 has been observed by several researchers--although this is disputed by others. Small amounts of natural vitamin C are a better choice than large amounts of synthetic vitamin C. (Herbert V and Das KC. Folic acid and vitamin B12. In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 8th ed. PhiladelphiaL Lea & Febiger, 1994:404.)

Don’t smoke. Cigarette and cigar-smoking deplete vitamin B12 (New Eng J Med 1995 Nov 2;333(18):1176-82).

Take extra B12 before and after surgery. Nitrous oxide anesthesia during surgery can deplete B12, a fact that may explain many cases of post-operative depression (Marie RM and others. Arch Neurol 2000 Mar;57(3):380-2).

Avoid vaccinations containing thimerosol and other mercury-containing compounds. Vitamin B12 is depleted by mercury (J Molecular Psychiatry Apr 2004).

Avoid molds in the environment and your food. Mycotoxins produced by molds disrupt or interfere with the normal functions of vitamin B12 (Anyanwi EC and others. Scientific World Journal 2004 Aug;4:736-45).

Do not take oral contraceptives (the pill), which can deplete vitamin B12. (Henley S. Body Forum 1977 Jan 30;2(7):20; Sutterlin MW and others. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003 Mar 26;107(1):57-61; Lussana F and others. Thromb Res 2003;112(1-2):37-41).

Take B12 supplements if you have any conditions that might interfere with B12, such as celiac disease, Crohn’s disease and similar intestinal disorders, especially if you are elderly or exhibit any of the symptoms of B12 deficiency.

B12 Supplementation--Shots or Pills?

The standard treatment for B12 deficiency involves injections, which deliver B12 quickly into the bloodstream and bypass any defective components of the absorption mechanism. Injections are indicated in cases of extreme deficiency, when B12 stores must be replenished very quickly. The standard protocol is 1000 micrograms daily for three days, then weekly for a month, then one injection per month indefinitely.

However, shots are unpleasant and expensive, requiring regular visits to the doctor’s office unless the patient is able to self administer. For all but the most urgent situations, a growing body of medical opinion supports the use of oral supplementation, especially sublingual tablets. Practitioners are now recommending a dose of 100-250 micrograms per day for maintenance purposes. Those with absorption problems may need 1000 -2000 micrograms per day. Such doses are safe because cobalamin has no known toxic effects. Those with absorption problems will absorb only a fraction of the dose (through a process of diffusion across the gut wall) but studies indicate that consistent use of oral supplementation will correct deficiency in most patients with malabsorption. In fact, a recent study showed that oral supplementation with 2000 micrograms per day was three times as effective as injections in increasing B12 levels in pernicious anemia patients (Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, January 1997 45(1):124).

Dr. John Dommisse recommends very high dose lozenges (2000/2500 mcg) taken after one or two meals daily, as effective as injections in maintaining serum B12 levels in the ideal range (www.johndommisse.com/b12.html).

Nasal gel perparations have also been found to be capable of maintaining ideal serum B12 levels, although this method of supplementation remains controversial. Another possible delivery method, recommended by Dr. Joseph Mercola, is delivery through the skin by mixing B12 with DMSO (www.mercola.com/2000/aug27/vitamin_b12_deficiency.htm).

The most commonly used form of B12 for treatment in the US is cyanocobalamin. Only two forms are active in the body, however, methylcobalamin and adenosylcobalamin. Cyanocobalamin must be converted in the body to either methyl or adenosyl cobalamin by the enzymatic removal of a cyanide molecule. (The amount of cyanide produced during this process is very small but still could be problematical); whereas the body can immediately use supplements of methylcobalamin (the only active form of vitamin B12 commercially available in the US). In a study that looked at the ability of vitamin B12 to extend life in mice with cancer, methylcobalamin led to significant increases in survival time while cyanocobalamin had no effect (Tsao CS and Myashita K. Pathobiology 1993;61(2):104-8).

The Patient Who Wept for Six Months

From Your Nutrition Prescription by Dr. H.L. Newbold

Several years ago a seventy-six-year-old woman was brought to my office by her daughter, who stated that the mother had been weeping uncontrollably for the past six months and had recently become so incapacitated that she was unable to do her housework. She had been to see five physicians who had treated her in five different ways, mostly with antidepressants and tranquilizers. One doctor had given her injections of multiple vitamins, which had not helped either.

In spite of her normal B12 level, I gave her a trial injection of 1000 mcg of vitamin B12. I told myself that unless she quickly improved, she would need antidepressants. If the antidepressants didn’t help her a great deal within a month, she would need electroconvulsive therapy.

When she returned to my office three days later, she was considerably improved. She was no longer crying, and reported that she felt much stronger and had slept throughout the night for the first time in many months.

At the time of her next visit three days later, she looked happy and told me she could do her housekeeping again.

During subsequent visits the daughter was taught to administer the injections to her mother twice a week, or more frequently if she seemed in greater need of the vitamin. When she returned several weeks later, the elderly lady told me that she could feel herself becoming depleted of the vitamin every three or four days, and always felt completely restored after receiving another injection. At the time of that visit she was feeling the way she had felt ten years earlier, and was busy with all the household chores which she, like so many good German housewives of her generation, immensely enjoyed.

She was instructed to take the injections more often. If the injection gave her a lift, then she had waited too long.

This woman is a good example of a vitamin-dependent individual. I am sure we had elevated her serum vitamin B12 level to enormous heights. It would have been a waste of money to retest her.

Perhaps she was one of those people whose enzyme functions gradually fade with age. But this patient was restored to normal by giving her massive amounts of vitamins. It is even possible that certain metabolic pathways, not normally employing vitamin B12, switched pathways, and made use of this invigorated set of enzymes. At any rate, a few injections of B12 turned a crying, shuffling old woman into a bright-eyed, merry, elderly housewife who could once more take an active role in life and enjoy her remaining years.

Such transformations are what chemistry and nutrition are all about.

Vitamin B12 and the Nobel Prize

The discovery, description, isolation and synthesis of B12 is a good example of science at its best and has resulted in four Nobel prizes, three in chemistry and one in medicine.

1934: Whipple (California), Minot and Murphy (Massachusetts) won the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine for the discovery of the "anti-pernicious anemia factor" in liver.

1964: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (Oxford) won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for her crystal structure analysis of B12 crystal, using new X-ray techniques.

1965: R. B. Woodward (Harvard), working with B12, won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis.

1981: K. Fukui (Kyoto) and R. Hoffman (Cornell), working with B12, won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for quantum mechanical studies of chemical reactivity.

Sources of Vitamin B12

Mollusks (clams, oysters, mussels, etc) 3 ounces 84.1 micrograms
Liver, beef, 1 slice 47.9 micrograms
Trout, wild, 3 ounces 5.4 micrograms
Salmon, 3 ounces 4.9 micrograms
Trout, farmraised, 3 ounces 4.2 micrograms
Beef sirloin, 3 ounces 2.4 micrograms
Yoghurt 1.4 micrograms
Milk, 1 cup 0.9 micrograms
Pork, cured ham, canned, 3 ounces 0.6 micrograms
Egg, hardboiled 0.6 micrograms
Chicken breast, 1/2 breast 0.3 micrograms

Vitamin B12 Recommended Daily Allowance

Age RDA
0-6 months no RDA
7-12 months no RDA
1-3 years 0.9 micrograms
4-8 years 1.2 micrograms
9-13 years 1.8 micrograms
14 and older 2.4 micrograms
Pregnancy 2.6 micrograms
Lactation 2.8 micrograms

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This article appeared in Wise Traditions in Food, Farming and the Healing Arts, the quarterly magazine of the Weston A. Price Foundation, Spring 2005.

About the Authors

Sally Fallon MorellSally Fallon Morell is the author of Nourishing Traditions: The Cookbook that Challenges Politically Correct Nutrition and the Diet Dictocrats (with Mary G. Enig, PhD), a well-researched, thought-provoking guide to traditional foods with a startling message: Animal fats and cholesterol are not villains but vital factors in the diet, necessary for normal growth, proper function of the brain and nervous system, protection from disease and optimum energy levels. She joined forces with Enig again to write Eat Fat, Lose Fat, and has authored numerous articles on the subject of diet and health. The President of the Weston A. Price Foundation and founder of A Campaign for Real Milk, Sally is also a journalist, chef, nutrition researcher, homemaker, and community activist. Her four healthy children were raised on whole foods including butter, cream, eggs and meat.



Mary G. Enig, PhDMary G. Enig, PhD is an expert of international renown in the field of lipid biochemistry. She has headed a number of studies on the content and effects of trans fatty acids in America and Israel, and has successfully challenged government assertions that dietary animal fat causes cancer and heart disease. Recent scientific and media attention on the possible adverse health effects of trans fatty acids has brought increased attention to her work. She is a licensed nutritionist, certified by the Certification Board for Nutrition Specialists, a qualified expert witness, nutrition consultant to individuals, industry and state and federal governments, contributing editor to a number of scientific publications, Fellow of the American College of Nutrition and President of the Maryland Nutritionists Association. She is the author of over 60 technical papers and presentations, as well as a popular lecturer. Dr. Enig is currently working on the exploratory development of an adjunct therapy for AIDS using complete medium chain saturated fatty acids from whole foods. She is Vice-President of the Weston A Price Foundation and Scientific Editor of Wise Traditions as well as the author of Know Your Fats: The Complete Primer for Understanding the Nutrition of Fats, Oils, and Cholesterol, Bethesda Press, May 2000. She is the mother of three healthy children brought up on whole foods including butter, cream, eggs and meat.

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